Neuroanatomy
Neuroanatomy encompasses the organization and structure of the nervous system. This field of study covers both microscopic and macroscopic anatomy (Schaffer, 2019). The nervous system is a sophisticated chain or network of nerves and cells that relay information from the brain to other body parts. This network comprises two major parts: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Further distinguishing these components, the central nervous system is composed of the brain and the spinal cord. In contrast, the peripheral nervous system constitutes the nerves, together with the supporting cells, that diverge all around the remainder of the body and convey back to the central nervous system.
The central commanding organ of this network is the brain. The brain is a specialized organ that dictates every reflection, anticipation, emotion, understanding, and action. The cerebrum, brainstem, and cerebellum are the three main regions of the brain. This organ’s instructing capabilities are aided by its distinct and complex holographic design. Scholars and scientists have discovered that the brain includes specialized areas carrying out particular functions like comprehending and creating speech or integrating optical and dimensional data. The cerebrum, popularly referred to as the front of the brain, comprises the cerebral cortex (grey matter) and the white matter. This part, which is the brain’s biggest component, controls temperature and initiates and coordinates movement. The cerebrum and spinal cord are linked by the brainstem, which is in the brain’s center. The midbrain, pons, and medulla are all parts of the brainstem. The cerebellum is an area of the brain situated in the rear of the head, above the brainstem, and beneath the temporal and occipital lobes. Its purpose is to coordinate voluntary muscular movements while maintaining stance, stability, and balance.
Marking guide
For a candidate to correctly answer the above question, all aspects of neuroanatomy, including structure and functionality, have to be clearly outlined. The answer provided above satisfactorily encompasses all the required fundamentals of the topic in question. A candidate’s ideas should be relevant, accurate, verifiable, and properly cited according to the guidelines. This question is allocated twenty points, ten points each for relevancy and fluency and the accuracy of the information provided.
Organic Disorders
Organic disorders specifically describe the physical conditions resulting in compromised mental function. Presently, it falls under the heading of neurocognitive disorders as such organic disorders would encompass any decline in mental capacity without a clear link to a psychiatric condition. From different studies or sources, the terms organic brain syndrome, chronic organic brain syndrome, and neurocognitive disorder are sometimes used in place of the term organic mental disorder. A patient is likely to develop such a disorder if exposed to physical trauma leading to brain damage, infections, damage caused by poisons or chemicals, and degenerative diseases such as Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. It is also worth noting that organic brain syndrome may be brought on by concussions, pulmonary embolisms, or hemorrhaging around or within the brain from trauma.
There are two main categories of organic brain syndrome: acute and chronic. Acute organic brain syndrome can also be described as delirium or an acute disorientation condition (Fymat, 2019). Encephalopathy, also known as an amnestic condition, is a third subgroup that designates a transitional state between delirium and dementia. Delirium describes a recently developed condition of mental deterioration brought on by drug overdose, infection, pain, and numerous other physical issues that harm the psychological condition. Although acute organic brain syndrome is frequently transient, there is no assurance that it will not return or worsen until it becomes chronic or long-lasting (Fymat, 2019).
Chronic organic brain syndrome, also described as dementia, is considered a firmly established condition. For instance, due to their persistent or irreversible harmful effects on brain function, several types of persistent drug or alcohol addiction might result in organic brain syndrome. Other frequently cited causes of chronic organic brain syndrome include Alzheimer’s disease and other debilitating, irreversible causes, such as the wide varieties of dementia that occur from lifelong brain damage brought on by strokes (Logsdon, 2020). Although they may differ in their early phases, amnestic illnesses, on the other hand, are typically persistent and progressing conditions that lie in the transitional phase between delirium and dementia.
While various organic mental condition symptoms are alike and have psychological or physical components, others vary depending on the underlying etiology of the dysfunction. Long-term concentration may be challenging for someone who has an organic mental disease. While executing actions that appear ordinary to others, such undertakings may confuse some patients. Establishing interactions, working together, and talking with coworkers, acquaintances, or relatives can be challenging. Confusion, impaired orientation, comprehension, or attentiveness are symptoms of dementia and delirium (Weng et al., 2019). In addition, hallucinations, delusions, forgetfulness, and social withdrawal are the other likely outcomes, and as such, these symptoms demand additional and in-person care and attention. Dementia and delirium’s side effects are separate from alterations in sensory or perceptual capacities. Other typical symptoms include agitation, memory loss, poor judgment, and logical function.
In many instances, when a manifestation of a specific psychiatric etiology, such as affective disorder, is ruled out, an organic cause of brain malfunction can be presumed. Even though mental or behavioral anomalies associated with organic disorders can be irreversible, seeking early treatment may avert lasting harm and recover cognitive functions. An organic mental condition may be diagnosed via blood testing, lumbar punctures, or electroencephalograms (Samal et al., 2019). Subservient to the doctor’s assessment, brain imaging tests like a CT scan or MRI can also be beneficial. Different treatments are available depending on the root cause of these mental diseases. These therapies may include medicine, pharmacological modulation of neurotransmitter activity, and physical or occupational rehabilitation therapy, among others. Different forms of therapy can help the afflicted areas of the brain regain some function.
Though some organic mental illnesses might only be transient, others frequently deteriorate over time. A patient could end up losing their capacity to function unaided or engage with others due to disorders that may not be responsive to therapy. In summary, several variables, most notably the underlying cause, affect a person’s possibility of recovery. However, although receiving a diagnosis of an organic mental illness can be terrifying, most institutions and health entities are known for providing enough resources to assist patients and their caregivers in their recovery journey. In cases of a positive diagnosis, a patient should seek medical therapy as early as possible to maximize the chances of optimal recovery.
Marking guide
The answer provided acceptably satisfies the required outline from the question. This answer adequately describes organic mental disorders and supports their reference to neurocognitive illnesses. However, an in-depth analysis and description of these disorders’ neurobiological basis would enhance the quality and fluency of this answer. The ideal answer, with a clear outline, relevance, and accurate resources, would fetch the candidate a total of thirty points. Ten points would be awarded for excellent understanding and analysis of the question, another ten points for clear articulation and discussion of the ideas, and the remaining ten points for adherence to the required guidelines, citation, and structure of the answer.
Intellectual Disability
Intelligence is the general cognitive ability to reason, plan, problem-solve, think abstractly, understand difficult concepts, learn effectively, and experience-basedly. Traditionally, intellectual impairment has been characterized by major deficiencies in functional and cognitive abilities and significant deficits in cognition, as determined by a standardized intelligence test, specifically with an intelligence quotient score below 70 (Boat & Wu, 2015).
Acumen, problem-solving, organization, abstract thought, discernment, academic learning, acquiring knowledge from teaching and experience, and pragmatic comprehension are all considered intellectual functions supported by both clinical evaluation and standardized examinations. On the other hand, theoretical, interpersonal, and technical abilities involving activities people conduct in daily life are used to characterize cognition abilities. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, describes intellectual disabilities as childhood-onset neurodevelopmental conditions marked by intellectual challenges and challenges in daily life’s theoretical, relational, and functional facets. This definition facilitates a more thorough understanding of the subject since it covers deficits of broad mental capacities.
Intellectual impairment is further classified into two categories: syndromic intellectual disability and non-syndromic intellectual disability category. When an intellectual disability is syndromic, other physical and behavioral symptoms and indicators are present, whereas when it is non-syndromic, no other abnormalities are present. For instance, fragile X syndrome and Down syndrome are classified in the syndromic intellectual disabilities sub-category. The severity of this condition has been labeled as ‘mild,’ ‘average,’ ‘acute,’ and ‘fundamental or profound.’ This technique has been effective since mild to average conditions vary from acute to profound intellectual disability in some ways (Patel et al., 2020). The DSM-V maintains this classification but emphasizes basic capabilities more than a particular IQ spectrum. A formal IQ and adaptive behavior exam are used to determine the existence of intellectual impairment. Intellectual impairment is distinguished from other disorders, such as intracranial injury and dementia, by a third condition that must manifest during the formative phase.
In the overall population, 2 to 3% have intellectual impairment. Most of those affected (between seventy and ninety percent) have mild to moderate intellectual disabilities. Thirty to fifty percent of these cases are non-syndromic or idiopathic (Boat & Wu, 2015). According to Boat and Wu (2015), genetic condition is responsible for roughly twenty-five percent of instances, while inheritance accounts for about 5% of cases, in all facets of theoretical basis as well as social and everyday living abilities, people with mild intellectual disability lag behind. These people can acquire useful life skills that enable them to participate in daily life with the least assistance. Those who have a moderate intellectual disability can look after themselves, visit locations they are familiar with in their neighborhood, and learn the fundamentals of safety and well-being. However, their health care necessitates some assistance. Individuals with acute conditions frequently can comprehend speech but have inadequate communication skills due to significant developmental delays. Congenital syndromes are common in people with fundamental intellectual disabilities. These people need constant monitoring and assistance with self-care tasks since they cannot live unassisted.
When matched to peers of the same age, individuals with intellectual disabilities exhibit deficiencies in their mental faculties, social skills, and fundamental daily life functions. While there might be distinguishing physical qualities when minor intellectual deficits are linked to a genetic issue, there are frequently no physical symptoms of these conditions. In one-third to one-half of cases involving children, the etiology of intellectual impairment is unknown; only 5% of such cases are hereditary (Boat and Wu, 2015). It is also important to note that genetic considerations and environmental factors contribute to this condition. Accidents or abnormalities in genetic formation can result in genetic flaws that underlie intellectual disability. Toxic drug exposure, nutritional inadequacies, brain radiation, juvenile brain illnesses, brain damage, and prenatal infections are examples of environmental variables that might also cause ID.
The majority of definitions classify intellectual disability as a disability as opposed to an illness. There are numerous ways to distinguish between mental illness and intellectual disability. Even though a scientifically defined and structured treatment for an acknowledged intellectual disability is not available, there are three categories of appropriate therapy. The first category encompasses the form of therapy that deals with or lessens any underlying factors in ID. The second category details the therapy for concurrent psychological and physical conditions with a focus on enhancing performance and practical skills in the patient. The third form of therapy focuses on psychological support and early therapies in behavior and cognitive aspects. Individuals who exhibit developmental disabilities adapt during their lifetimes, with the assistance of their relatives, carers, and clinicians, and can pick up a lot of new skills even in their later years. Countless organizations help those with developmental disabilities all over the world.
Marking Guide
The total points that or on offer for this question are thirty. The ideological clarity, relevance, and adherence to the provided guidelines would fetch ten points each. The correct answer is required to describe, in clarity, the condition of intellectual disability, its diagnosis, causes, symptoms, and treatment therapy. The answer should also outline the neurobiological grounds of this condition. The answer provided depicts ideological clarity, relevant analysis, and adequate accuracy of the information provided.
Neuroimaging
The field of neuroimaging applies imaging technologies to evaluate the anatomy and operation of the nervous system, allowing for the non-invasive acquisition of images of the brain’s structures (Zhang et al., 2020). It examines various processes that contribute to the pathological condition, including cognition, processing of information, and brain alterations. Neuroimaging approach is applied to visualize the anatomy and functionality of the nervous system for neuroscience, clinical and psychological disciplines. Functional magnetic resonance imaging is one of the most applied neuroimaging techniques and noninvasively assesses brain activity by examining oxidation and blood circulation alterations.
Marking guide
This question requires an answer that satisfactorily defines and describes neuroimaging and its application in neuroanatomy. Clarity and excellent undertaking of the topic in question would earn a candidate a total of ten points. The answer adequately introduces and describes neuroimaging as a field of study that borrows from technological imaging in neuroanatomy. However, an in-depth explanation and analysis of specific neuroimaging techniques and their applicability would enhance the quality of the answer.
Reference list
Boat, T., and Wu, J. (2015). Mental disorders and disabilities among low-income children. Web.
Fymat, A. (2019). “On dementia and other cognitive disorders”. Clinical Research in Neurology, 2(1), 1-4. Web.
Logsdon, A. (2020). Organic mental disorder causes and treatment. Web.
Patel, D. et al. (2020). “A clinical primer on intellectual disability“. Translational Pediatrics, 9 (Suppl 1), S23–S35. Web.
Samal, J. et al. (2019). “A window into the brain: Tools to assess pre-clinical efficacy of biomaterials-based therapies on central nervous system disorders”. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, 148, 68-145. Web.
Schaffer, D. (2019). What is neuroanatomy? Web.
Weng, C. et al. (2019). “Effects of depression, dementia and delirium on activities of daily living in elderly patients after discharge“. BMC Geriatrics, 19, 1-8. Web.
Zhang, J. et al. (2020). “Advances of neuroimaging and data analysis“. Frontiers in Neurology, 11, 257. Web.