Introduction
Background and Rationale
Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) has gained massive relevance in human resource management over the recent past. Podsakoff, MacKenzie, and Podsakoff (2018, p. 8) define OCB as “individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization.” In every organization, there are standard practices that every employee is formally expected to observe as defined in their contract and directly linked to the reward system. OCB goes beyond these standard contractual requirements. As shown in the definition above, it is a state where an employee makes a discretionary decision to make an extra effort in their assignment without considering an additional reward. Ochnik (2019) further states that the concept of OCB is a reflection of the level of employees’ satisfaction, which then reflects on their commitment to the firm and the assignments given to them.
The researcher considered it rational to conduct this study because of the growing need to create an enabling environment where employees can fully exploit their potential. The era of dictatorial leadership strategies is rapidly coming to an end, and firms are under pressure to create a workplace environment where individual employees can work without feeling exploited or oppressed (Bostock et al., 2019). In the United Arab Emirates, companies are keen on finding strategies that can help retain top talents and ensure that they remain motivated. That can only be achieved by eliminating stress and other internal forces that may affect their performance. In this study, the researcher will determine the impact of work stress on organizational citizenship behavior, basing it on a case study in the UAE retail sector.
Problem Statement
Workplace stress is increasingly becoming common in many companies around the world. Hartwig (2020) states that many employees are struggling to meet strict targets set by their companies. Others are struggling with personal problems, which directly affect their performance at work. When the problem goes undetected and unsolved, it spirals out of control and the performance of the employee drops instead of improving. Yates (2020) believes that one of the main issues that cause work stress is the inability to accurately match employees’ skills and experience with their assignments. As such, an employee skilled in financial statistics is assigned roles in technology management. Workplace stress can also be caused by an inconsiderate management unit that sets unrealistic goals for the employees. A complete breakdown of the communication system within an organization can also cause stress (Yuanyuan, 2020). A preliminary review of the literature indicates that workplace stress has a direct negative impact on organizational citizenship behavior. Stressed employees tend to underperform and they will have the motivation to make an extra effort in their places of work. It is necessary to address workplace stress to ensure that organizational citizenship behavior among employees is achieved.
Significance and Motivation
The United Arab Emirates is becoming a major business hub in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. It means that almost in every sector, competition is increasingly becoming stiff because of the emergence of local, regional, and international firms targeting the local market (Sendjaya, 2019). The service industry, especially the retail sector, has become one of the most competitive sectors over the last decade. When operating in a highly competitive business environment, Winston (2019) advises that a firm should find ways of offering unique services to customers. They have to ensure that they offer the best quality products at the most competitive prices. They also have to understand emerging customer needs and how to meet them effectively. A firm can only achieve such ambitious goals if it has a team of highly talented and self-motivated employees willing to make the extra effort to offer the best to customers.
This study is important because it addresses how a firm can ensure that it addresses work stress that can negatively affect the retention of top talent and their ability to remain motivated. In a local Emirati context, the study explains how a firm can achieve OCB as a way of ensuring that it maintains a pool of skilled and self-driven workers. The motivation of the study is to ensure that the targeted organization can address challenges that the employees face helping enhance their levels of satisfaction. Eliminating stress is one of the steps that should be taken toward achieving OCB. The study will explain the possible causes of workplace stress and how they can be eliminated. The findings made in this study will make an important contribution to this field of research, taking into account the unique socio-economic and political environment in the UAE and the entire MENA region.
Research Questions
Workplace stress and organizational citizenship behavior are concepts that have attracted the attention of many scholars in the field of human resource management. Mahrool (2020) argues that a researcher must set clear questions that will differentiate the study from the work of other scholars who addressed similar or related issues. Research questions narrow the focus of the study to specific issues that should be addressed by the end of the research. The following are the research questions that will guide the process of collecting and analyzing data from various sources:
- Have you suffered from any form of work stress? Please explain.
- Do you have a good work-life balance? Please explain.
- Are you given sufficient time to complete your daily work tasks? Are you assigned adequate time to complete your daily work tasks? Please elaborate.
- Are you given enough support in the workplace? Please provide a brief answer.
Research Aim and Objectives
Research objectives are directly linked to the research questions. As Mahrool (2020) observes, the objectives of a study can only be realized if the set research questions are answered appropriately. Based on the above questions, the researcher seeks to achieve the following objectives in this study:
- To evaluate the relationship between workplace stress and effective employee management.
- To identify the reasons and outcomes of organizational stress.
- To evaluate the various types of organizational citizenship behaviors.
- To assess the impact of organizational stress and the effects it has on organizational citizenship behavior and co-workers.
The study will have a major impact on this field of literature and practice. It will identify the factors that are associated with workplace stress in the identified organization. It will determine the relationship between organizational stress and the impact it has on organizational citizenship behaviors. The study will explain how stress affects the behavior of employees and their willingness to make extra effort in normal tasks. The study will analyze the impact of organizational stress on organizational citizenship behavior in the United Arab Emirates. The researcher will then offer recommendations, based on the outcome of the data collected, that should be observed by the local companies in the UAE to enable them to have a team of talented and self-driven employees.
Further Chapter Outline
This dissertation has five chapters, each addressing different aspects of the study. Chapter 1 provides a background to the study, explaining the nature of the problem and the significance of the research. It also outlines research questions and objectives that should be achieved through the collection and analysis of data from various sources. Chapter 2 focuses on the review of the literature on this field of study. It looks at what other scholars have found in this study and the possible gaps that need further research. Various relevant theoretical concepts are also discussed to help explain the concepts of workplace stress and organizational citizenship behavior.
Chapter 3 discusses methods that were used to collect and process data from various sources. It explains the challenges faced and how the researcher observed ethical issues in the entire process of collecting and processing data. Chapter 4 addresses findings made from the analysis of primary data. Data is presented in a way that directly responds to the questions presented in this chapter. It then provides an integration of both primary and secondary data in the discussion section. The last chapter provides a summary of the findings and the conclusion made from it. It also lists recommendations to the firm based on the conclusion made. A list of references is provided in the last section of this report.
Literature Review
The previous chapter provided background information for this study. In this chapter, the focus is to review the existing literature on this field. As Yates (2020) explains, a researcher needs to start by appreciating the world and what others have done in the field. It not only helps in gathering background information but also enables a researcher to avoid duplicating already existing information. It allows a researcher to identify existing knowledge gaps or conflicts in the already existing information. Workplace stress and organizational citizenship behavior are two widely explored fields (Geraghty, Speelman, and Bayes, 2019). The review of the literature helps in developing the possible relationship between the two concepts before primary data collected from sampled participants is processed and interpreted. This chapter discusses theoretical and conception overview and empirical overview, before discussing research gaps that arise from the review of the literature.
Theoretical and Conceptual Overview
The concept of work stress and organizational citizenship behavior can be explained from various theoretical concepts. As Yates (2020) observes, various factors can affect the level of employee satisfaction. The review above has also established the relationship between employee satisfaction and work stress. It is necessary to analyze theories that can help explain employee satisfaction within an organization (Olson et al., 2019). The researcher found COR theory relevant when explaining the impact of work stress on organizational citizenship behavior.
Conservation of Resources Theory
Stress is one of the most common factors that directly affect the performance of employees and their allegiance to a given company. Understanding its genesis, the development path, and its impact can effectively be explained using the conservation of resources theory. According to Jin, McDonald, and Park (2018, p. 168), COR theory holds that “human beings’ primary motivation is to build, protect, and foster their resource pools to protect the self and the social bonds that support the self.” People tend to feel safe when they know that their resources are secured.
The initial goal is always to build the resources. As the wealth grows, there is the fear that it can be lost, hence they develop mechanisms to protect it. As one protects the current resources, one will strive to build further resources. Zhou, Ma, and Dong (2018) argue that “Stress is viewed in COR theory as the result of a threat or a loss of resources, rather than in terms of the direct injury or harm to the person.” The focus of this theory is stress that arises solely from the loss or gain of resources. The proponents of this theory hold that sometimes it is easier for an individual to overcome stress caused by physical pain than it is to overcome one that is a result of a permanent loss or a major resource.
The scholar further stipulates the three phases that can cause stress to an individual. The first one is the threat of resource loss. When there is a genuine belief or feeling that an individual is about to lose a resource, they will be stressed. The second instance is when one suffers an actual loss. Hobfoll (2017) explains that when an individual loses a resource due to bad investment, theft, vandalism, or any other reason, they will be stressed. The third instance is caused by the inability to gain resources. The reason why people continue to invest their resources or keep their jobs is because of the desire to gain more resources. They work towards creating a more stable future (Guo, Cheng, and Luo, 2021). When their investment activities fail to yield the desired growth or when they lose their jobs, chances are high that they will be stressed.
The proponents of this theory hold the assumption that individuals who have more resources are in better positions to gain more than those with fewer resources. This assumption is closely related to the one that holds that those who experience loss in the initial stages of their investment are likely to lose more in the future, and those who gain in the beginning will gain more in the future (Singh, Selvarajan, and Solansky, 2019). The final assumption is that lack or loss of resources leads to defensive acts as one seeks to protect the remaining wealth.
The theory further states that the pain of losing a resource is greater than the joy of gaining an equal amount. In the context of an organization, a reduction in pay may have more devastating consequences than the benefits that a pay increase would bring. Similarly, when employees are used to working within a given budget, a reduction of the budget will bring greater levels of stress than the joy and motivation an increase in the resources would have (Tabor et al., 2020). The stress may spiral out of control, if corrective measures are not taken, and lead to depression, as shown in Figure 2.1 below.
The figure shows a common pattern that may be created when employees are faced with resource depletion caused by reduced salaries or reduced budgetary allocations when undertaking a given project. The immediate reaction would be frequent absenteeism that reflects their frustration at resource depletion. When the stress is not eliminated or managed, depersonalization would possibly arise. Lin, Scott, and Matta (2019) explain that this is a stage where one feels their surroundings are unreal and that one views oneself from outside their body. It is a feeling of detachment which is a sign that they no longer feel part of the system anymore.
Emotional exhaustion is another possible consequence that arises from absenteeism that is related to resource depletion. According to a study by Mao et al. (2021), emotional exhaustion occurs when one has accumulated stress that is caused by work or personal issues. At this point, there is an indication that those who are in a position of power are not doing anything to address the problem. The employees start feeling drained and worn out emotionally. They believe that what they are currently doing will not provide them with financial security at the moment and in the future. If they come to work, they will do so because they feel coerced and fear the greater consequences of losing their jobs.
Reduced personal accomplishments are likely to be witnessed as the cause of stress continues. Increased frequency of absenteeism, depersonalization, and emotional exhaustion will directly be reflected in one’s performance (Huang et al., 2022). In the context of a workplace environment, such an individual would lose focus as their thoughts would constantly be on lost resources. Their inability to be at work regularly would mean that they will be unable to accomplish their tasks at the right time. The quality of work that they do will equally be reduced because of the mental frustrations and instability.
These negative factors associated with resource depletion would eventually result in depression. Zhu et al. (2020) the assumption at this stage is that there was no recovery from the loss of resources and all efforts to reverse the negative trend failed. One would sink into depression, where they are unable to perform their normal tasks. Ashraf, Mangi, and Laghari (2020) explain that depression is a medical condition where one develops a persistent feeling of sadness and loss of interest in things they valued before. Such an individual would develop suicidal thoughts as they realize that life has lost its meaning to them. They become erratic in their decisions and actions in the workplace.
Organizational citizenship behavior is achieved when one is feeling motivated. Abbas et al. (2021) argue that OCB is common in a workplace where employees are focused and feel taken care of by the firm. They are not concerned about their financial well-being both at a personal life level and in terms of resources that they need to accomplish their tasks. The theory above explains how a single issue, resource depression, can transform an employee from being the most committed and performing individual to a highly depressed person who can no longer perform their normal functions. It is a clear demonstration of the impact that work stress can have on OCB within a firm. Most importantly, the theory holds that it is a process and does not happen in an instant. When a resource is lost, the immediate reaction would be shock, which then leads to the stages explained above. If the chain of reactions is broken and the problem is solved, a firm can salvage the situation.
Conceptual Overview
The review of the literature led to the development of a conceptual framework, shown in Figure 2.3 below. The framework explains the relationship between workplace stress and organizational citizenship behavior. As shown in the framework, it is the responsibility of the leadership of a firm to manage workplace stress. Managing workplace stress starts with investigating the possible causes of the problem. The human resource unit should investigate the level of stress within a firm and the possible causes. Yates (2020) explains that employees will always be stressed, and the only factor that matters is the level of stress.
When it is established that employees are highly stressed, all the possible causes should be investigated and eliminated. Even in cases where stress is caused by the private life of an employee, it should be eliminated if the firm is capable of doing so (Sharma, 2020). For instance, when a worker takes a personal loan and paying it has become a challenge, the firm can make an internal arrangement of how the loan can be repaid over a longer period to reduce the level of pressure that the employee faces (Borkowski and Meese, 2022)). Eliminating this workplace stress creates the impression that the firm is committed to serving its employees in the best way possible.
The framework shows that when workplace stress is managed, employees will be satisfied. The amount of effort that the management puts into addressing the challenges that employees face will be a reminder to them that they are valued (Bostock et al., 2019). They will realize that they are considered part of the family in the organization and that any problem that they face will be tackled by the firm whenever it is possible. Eliminating workplace stress also creates a feeling of contentment. Employees realize that the management is monitoring their efforts and is willing to reward them.
Employee satisfaction finally leads to organizational citizenship behavior. At this stage, employees get committed to their work. When they realize that their employer is committed to eliminating any forms of stress and ensuring that they remain satisfied, they feel obliged to register improved performance on specific assignments given to them (Baykal, 2020). Such individuals would not mind making an extra effort in the workplace because they are aware that the employer will be committed to championing their interests. Besides being committed to their work, they will also express the same level of commitment to their organization. The effort of the management to fight workplace stress will convince workers that the firm is committed to creating a perfect working environment (Rajandran, 2019). They are not guaranteed that they will enjoy the same benefits when they move to another firm. As such, these employees will be committed to their current employer and will make every effort within their powers to ensure that it achieves sustainable growth.
Empirical Overview
A study by Sendjaya (2019) focused on explaining the concept of employee satisfaction. It is noted that the ability of an employee to remain committed to a firm depends on their level of satisfaction. The author argues that employee satisfaction is the state where a worker feels effectively taken care of within an organization to the level where they feel that they should remain loyal and committed to the firm. Baykal (2020) agrees with that definition, stating that when a firm meets most of the needs of its employees, they will be satisfied and remain focused on achieving the tasks assigned to them. Employee satisfaction goes beyond offering attractive remuneration to workers. Kelloway and Cooper (2021) contend that although high salaries are one of the most important requirements for having a satisfied team of workers, sometimes it takes more to maintain that satisfaction.
Montani et al. (2018) performed another study to help explain the concept of employee satisfaction. Matching the skills of employees with job requirements is one of the steps to ensuring that employees are satisfied. Problems often arise when the management fails to match the unique skills and experience of employees with the tasks assigned to them (Luthans, Luthans, and Luthans, 2021). The mismatch of skills and tasks would lead to frustration as the workers struggle to meet the expectations of the management. If the problem is not detected and addressed, the performance of the employee will start deteriorating, which leads to further frustration.
Baykal (2020) contends communication is critical when managing employees in an organizational setting. The argument is supported by Sendjaya (2019) who notes that some firms still operate in an environment where communication is highly structured. Junior employees are strictly required to communicate with their immediate superiors whenever they have a concern (Sayed, Sanford, and Kerley, 2019). They are not allowed to directly contact the top managers who may be in the best position to address the problem. Such firms consider the open–door policy as a liberal approach that may lead to time wastage. Yuanyuan (2020) explains that the problem arises when the supervisor decides to ignore some of the concerns of their subordinates. When an individual is in an environment where they cannot effectively communicate with the top managers within the firm, they will be frustrated. That will directly influence their levels of satisfaction and performance.
Likewise, Deng, Coyle-Shapiro, and Yang (2018) argue that the ability of a firm to involve its employees, irrespective of their position within the firm, in decision-making processes is critical. There is always a common practice where top managers develop policies without understanding how the junior workers, who are expected to implement them, will be affected (Liu and Ma, 2021). When employees are effectively engaged, they will not only share their ideas and experiences to help the management make an informed decision but will also feel part of the system. They will support the new policies because they will feel that they were part of their development. Such measures also help in ensuring that employees remain satisfied. Winston (2019) believes that a satisfied employee will easily embrace organizational citizenship behavior. They will be willing to make an extra effort to ensure that specific goals within their departments are realized.
A study by Zhou et al. (2021) focused on creating a healthy work-life balance. A healthy work-life balance is essential in an organizational setting. Baykal (2020) defines a healthy work-life balance as a situation where one meets deadlines and expectations at work while still having adequate time for personal needs such as being with family and friends. The definition is closely related to that of Sendjaya (2019) who contends that a work-life balance is achieved when an employee has enough personal time for private activities while still capable of meeting official expectations at work. The concept of a healthy work-life balance was developed out of the desire to have an environment where employees feel that they are not overworked. In the current competitive job market, workers are often under pressure to climb the career ladder in their respective organizations (Kelloway and Cooper, 2021). They are sometimes forced to spend several extra hours at work to meet and exceed expectations to enable them to attract the attention of the management. They believe that such measures are the only way of earning promotions.
In such an environment, Toh, Ng, and Phoon (2022) believe that the performance of employees is likely to be higher than the average. However, it is also likely that the majority of these employees will be compromising their private life needs (Liu and Ma, 2021). They will be leaving for work early and coming back home late in the evening. When one is dealing with family members, they find that the employee will rarely have time for their loved ones. Initially, it may be okay as everyone will feel that they are creating a financially secure future for the family. After some time, Yuanyuan (2020) notes that frustrations will set in as their presence at home is increasingly missed. When a firm fails to take the necessary measures to mitigate such problems, it may affect their emotional stability, which eventually leads to a drop in their performance.
Li et al. (2022) argue that employees need to register the highest possible performance based on their capabilities. They should also spend as much time working for the firm as possible. However, there is a limit within which these employees should not surpass in terms of time spent within the firm (Baykal, 2020). The management has to realize the need to ensure that such workers reach the level of burnout because of the inability to balance personal needs with work requirements. A healthy balance between the two helps in gradually improving the performance capabilities of workers over the years. It eliminates stressors that may eventually slow down the performance of the organization.
According to Lin and Wang (2021), it is important to understand workplace stress and its possible causes. Workplace stress is emerging as a major impediment to employee satisfaction, which then affects organizational citizenship behavior. Stress causes unnecessary anxiety that negatively affects the performance of employees (Sharma, 2020). Instead of such an individual focusing on the task at hand, they will be preoccupied with fear and concerns that take away time that they need to work. One of the causes of workplace stress identified in this review of literature is mismatching skills with task assignments.
A publication by Kelloway and Cooper (2021) reports that there are cases where an expert accountant is assigned a role that requires an individual with IT skills that they lack. As expected, they will fail to register satisfactory performance. They will struggle to undertake their new assignments but their lack of relevant skills will only make it worse. The more they are assigned tasks that do not match their skills, the more they would get frustrated, as Yates (2020) observes. Such employees tend to be highly stressed, especially when there is no effort made to manage the problem.
Jolly and Self (2020) believe that unrealistic expectations of management have been identified as another common cause of stress among employees. When the leadership of a firm sets higher targets without taking into consideration the current capabilities, workers will get frustrated (Sendjaya, 2019). Even if their performance is improved but does not meet the new standards, it will be a sign that they have failed. Before setting new performance standards, a firm is required to invest in employee training and empowerment programs. The change in output targets should be based on realistic improvement in their capabilities. Baykal (2020) observes that firms such as Amazon would adjust the targeted output upward so regularly that many employees lost hope of meeting or exceeding them. Although it remained one of the best-paying companies in the retail industry within the country, most of its employees noted that they were constantly stressed because of the unachievable targets.
Borikar and Bhatt (2020) contend that conflicts among employees were identified as another possible factor that can cause stress among employees. When the workplace environment exposes workers to constant conflict because of overlapping tasks or misunderstandings, it may not be possible to eliminate stress (Baykal, 2020). The problem is worsened when the organization lacks proper conflict management measures. Rajandran (2019) identifies poor communication systems as another major issue that can cause workplace stress. Under normal circumstances, employees would encounter challenges that would require them to engage their superiors. As such, there should be proper systems that can facilitate such discussions and immediate responses (Yuanyuan, 2020). When the communication system within the firm is too bureaucratic, cases of workplace stress will be high.
A study by Badu et al. (2020) focused on the relationship between workplace stress and organizational citizenship behavior. Through the review of the literature, it is necessary to establish the relationship between workplace stress and organizational citizenship behavior. Baykal (2020) supports the argument, stating that to understand this relationship, one needs to start by understanding the relationship between workplace stress and employee performance. As explained above, numerous factors may cause stress within an organization.
Foy et al. (2019) argue that although the standard practice is to eliminate the possible causes of stress, a firm must understand that it is not possible to eliminate all forms of stress. Sendjaya (2019) notes that a given degree of stress is good in motivating an employee to move out of their comfort zone and aim for higher performance. However, uncontrolled stress should be effectively managed because it can directly negate the performance of an employee. It takes their focus off work to things that are not related to their assignments. Immense stress can impair the judgment of an employee and lead them to take irrational actions.
According to Foster (2019), when employees are faced with immense workplace stress, they tend to blame their employer. They will develop a feeling that their firm is only focused on making profits and enriching the shareholders at the expense of employees’ wellbeing. They will view the employer as an enemy that is keen on exploiting employees without any regard for their physical and mental wellness (Liu and Ma, 2021). Such a perception towards the employer creates resentment and a desire to fight back. Such workers would be keen on engaging in industrial action instead of making an extra effort in the workplace.
Haque and Oino (2019) believe that when employees are highly stressed, the concept of organizational citizenship behavior will be viewed with suspicion and resentment as well. Sharma (2020) explains that OCB requires commitment on the side of the employee. It is not something that the management can force on its workers. Instead, it should be a voluntary effort made by individuals who feel that their firm deserves better service. When employees already feel exploited and disregarded by the management, they would not see a sense of making an extra effort. They may feel that the current targets should be lowered.
Research Gap
The review of prior studies revealed that this field of study has attracted the attention of many scholars over the past decades. It was evident that organizational citizenship behavior has been studied for almost half a century, while workplace stress has been studied for a longer duration. However, most of these studies were based on Western countries, especially in North America and Europe. Studies have revealed that culture is a strong element that affects both the stress and commitment of an employee toward a given firm. The lack of data that is specifically based on the Middle East when explaining the two concepts is, therefore, a major concern. It is necessary to base the study on the local context to determine if these arguments presented by Western scholars still hold in the local context. The collection and analysis of primary data were meant to address this gap.
Methodology
The previous chapter provided a review of the literature to help understand what other scholars have found out in this field. In this chapter, the focus is to explain the method that was used to collect and process data from various sources. Data in this study was obtained from primary and secondary sources. Secondary data was obtained from books, journal articles, and reliable online sources, which formed the basis of Chapter 2 above. Primary data was obtained from a sample of participants and focused on addressing knowledge gaps identified in the review. This chapter discusses how the primary data was obtained and processed.
Research Philosophy
Defining research philosophy is one of the first steps that a researcher should take before selecting a research design. As shown in the research onion in Figure 3.1 below, it is the first factor that has to be determined. According to Dudovskiy (2022), research philosophy refers to assumptions and beliefs that a researcher embraces when developing knowledge in a given study. A researcher can use positivism, realism, interpretivism, or pragmatism as the appropriate philosophies depending on the aim and nature of the study. Positivism holds the view that factual knowledge can only be gained through observation (Biggam, 2021). It limits the researcher’s role in data collection and interpretation without influencing the variables in the study. It also emphasizes the need to use quantitative methods to process data. This method was not considered appropriate because of its restrictive approach to data analysis.
Interpretivism is another popular research philosophy in social sciences. It holds the belief that access to reality is through the social construction of a phenomenon (Throne, 2022). As such, it requires a researcher to study and interpret elements of the study, integrating human interest in that process. When using this philosophy, a researcher is expected to use qualitative methods to study and explain a phenomenon. The approach was not used because of its overemphasis on the use of qualitative data. Realism, on the other hand, is a research philosophy, which holds the view that reality is independent of the human mind (Oliver, 2021). It contends that knowledge can only be developed through scientific study. In this social science project, this philosophy was not considered appropriate.
Pragmatism is the fourth option of the research philosophies that one can use in a study. It holds the belief that there are many ways of interpreting the world and that in some cases there can be multiple realities (Throne, 2021). The proponents of this philosophy argue that a concept can only be considered trustworthy if it supports action. It allows a researcher to use both qualitative and quantitative methods to process data. This philosophy was considered the most desirable in this study. When assessing the impact of workplace stress on organizational citizenship behavior, it is necessary to use both statistical and explanatory approaches to present data. The principles of this philosophy defined the assumptions made in the study.
Ontology vs. Epistemology
When discussing research philosophy, it is also necessary to look at ontological and epistemological issues. Throne (2021) explains that ontology focuses on what is real in the study and the nature of that reality. On the other hand, epistemology focuses on the nature and different methods of developing knowledge (Oliver, 2021). In this ontological study, it will be necessary to establish that workplace stress and organizational citizenship behavior are realities. Participants will have to confirm the existence of this problem. They will have to explain their existence and the nature of their relationship. The analysis will help in explaining the genesis of workplace stress and how it affects OCB within the selected firm.
Research Approach
As shown in the research onion above, when philosophy has been identified, the next step is to define the appropriate research approach. It refers to a general plan or procedure that one uses to conduct a study (Mahrool, 2020). A researcher can use inductive, deductive, or abductive research approaches, depending on the nature of the study and the selected philosophy. In this study, inductive reasoning was selected as the ideal approach based on the goal of the study and the research philosophy chosen above. Andrew, Pedersen, and McEvoy (2019) observe that this approach requires a researcher to make observations, including conducting tests, developing a pattern, and then developing a theory or new knowledge. Instead of predetermining hypotheses that have to be confirmed or rejected, Bougie and Sekaran (2020) explain that it takes a more neutral approach to making observations first. In this case, the researcher will make observations, based on the responses from the participants, to understand the causes of workplace stress and how it affects employees in different ways. The researcher will then determine how stress affects OBC.
Research Strategy
The onion also shows that one needs to define the appropriate research strategy that will be used to obtain the desired data. A survey was selected as the most appropriate research strategy for the study. It involves developing a questionnaire that is then distributed to a sample of participants who will answer specific research questions (Clark, Foster, and Bryman, 2019). It was selected as the most appropriate strategy because it will make it possible to understand the views of employees of the selected organization about the possible causes of workplace stress and how it eventually affects OCB. Mahrool (2020) explains that surveys are effective ways of collecting primary data. It makes it possible to collect data from the masses within a relatively short period.
Time Horizon
The research project had to be completed within a specific timeline. The project was broken down into specific activities, which were then assigned a specific duration, as Eden, Nielsen, and Verbeke (2019) recommend. The first task was proposal development. The proposal had to explain what the researcher intended to do and how the study would be conducted. The document had to be handed in for approval by the supervisor. After the approval, the researcher had to conduct a review of the literature to understand what other scholars have found out in this field. The researcher then embarked on the collection of primary data from the field. Once data was collected, it was processed to respond to the research questions. The final stage was writing up the document and proofreading it before submitting the report. Table 3.1 below shows the time allocated for each of these tasks in the project.
Table 1: Timeline of Activities
Data Collection Methods
Target Sample, Sample Size, and Sampling Technique
The retail sector in the United Arab Emirates employs millions of people. It is not possible to collect data from the entire population in this industry. As such, data had to be collected from a small manageable sample that would represent the entire population. Biggam (2021) advises that when selecting a sample for a study, it is necessary to ensure that its characteristics represent the entire population. Their views should represent the perception of all the people affected by the problem. The researcher used simple random sampling to identify individuals who are working in the retail industry within the country. The inclusion criteria were that one should have worked in the retail industry within the country for at least the last 5 years. Gender, age, and religious affiliation were not considered relevant when selecting the targeted sample. A sample size of 12 individuals aged between 30 and 65 was selected for the study.
Data Collection and Analysis Approach
When the participants have been sampled, the next step is to collect data. The researcher used a mixture of in-person interviews held at participants’ residences, via email, and through virtual meetings using teams and or Zoom, and the camera will be turned off. This method made it possible to collect the desired data from the selected individuals in an effective way (Ghauri, Grønhaug, and Strange, 2020). Data collected from the participants will be analyzed using mixed-method research. Qualitative analysis will make it possible to establish the existence of the relationship between workplace stress and OBC. Using an Excel spreadsheet, data will be analyzed statistically, and the outcome presented in graphs and charts. On the other hand, qualitative data will help to explain the nature of the relationship. It will explain the trend that it takes for workplace stress to affect OBC.
Reliability and Validity
This report can be used by policy-makers to make decisions and by future scholars to inform their study. As such, reliability and validity issues had to be taken into great consideration. To enhance the reliability of the instrument used to collect data, the researcher ensured that the questionnaire was tested before using it to collect data. The goal was to ensure that it could collect data as intended. The validity of the data was achieved by randomly selecting the participants without personal bias. Data was also collected from both primary and secondary sources to ensure that the conclusion made was as truthful as possible.
Ethical Considerations
When conducting this study, it was necessary to take into consideration ethical concerns. As Throne (2022) observes, one of the major requirements that a researcher should take into consideration is the need to protect the identity of the participants. It is common for someone to be subjected to various forms of verbal or physical attacks because their views on an issue are different from those of those in a position of power or that of the majority. The management of a firm may frustrate an employee who they feel provides information that is contrary to their expectations (Oliver, 2021). As such, it is advisable to ensure that the identity of respondents remains anonymous. Instead of using their actual names, the participants were assigned codes, from Respondent 1 to Respondent 12. This was meant to ensure that no one could track them down.
Getting the necessary consent is important before starting the process of data collection. When data collected is directly linked to an organization, it may be necessary to start by getting consent from the management unit of the firm (Ngulube, 2020). In this case, it was not necessary to get organizational consent. As such, individual consent was needed. Participation in a study should always be voluntary. The respondents were informed that their participation in this study was voluntary. They were informed that they could withdraw from the study at any time if they felt compelled to do so. They were informed that there would be no consequences whatsoever if they withdrew from the study. To ensure that the number of those withdrawing from the study was as minimal as possible, the researcher explained the significance of the study and the role that they were expected to play. The researcher informed them that the study was meant for academic purposes. All their questions and concerns were addressed and only those who agreed to be part of the study were included.
In an academic project, there are rules and regulations set by the school that a researcher has to observe. In this study, one of the important rules was the need to avoid all forms of plagiarism, as Esteban-Bravo and Vidal-Sanz (2021) recommend. The researcher made sure that this paper was written from scratch. The paper had not been submitted to any other institution for the same purpose of being graded. Information obtained from secondary and primary sources was cited using the Harvard Referencing style. The researcher also made sure that the document was prepared and completed within the time that was provided by the school.
Findings
The previous chapter explained the method that was used to collect and analyze data from primary sources. In this chapter, the focus is to present findings that were made from the analysis that was conducted. The chapter responds directly to the research questions that were presented to the participants. Data collected were analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively to ensure that the aim and objectives of the study were achieved.
Have you suffered from any form of work stress? Please explain.
This question focused on determining the prevalence of stress. The outcome of the analysis shows that all the individuals interviewed have suffered some form of stress in their workplace.
Do you have a good work-life balance? Please explain.
This question focused on determining the work-life balance among those who were interviewed. The outcome of the analysis shows that the majority of the participants do not have a good work-life balance.
Are you given sufficient time to complete your daily work tasks? Are you assigned adequate time to complete your daily work tasks? Please elaborate.
In this question, the goal was to determine if the employer grants employees adequate time to complete their tasks. The majority of the participants feel that they are rarely given adequate time to complete their tasks.
Are you given enough support in the workplace? Please provide a brief answer
The last question focused on determining if employees get the necessary support to accomplish their tasks. The analysis shows that the number of those who feel they get the support is higher than the number of those who feel they do not.
Thematic Analysis
Discussion
The previous chapter presented the outcome of the analysis of primary data. This chapter integrates and discusses findings from both primary and secondary sources. Work stress is a major concept in human resource management that has attracted the attention of scholars for the past several decades. World Health Organization (2020) defines work-related stress as “the response people may have when presented with work demands and pressures that are not matched to their knowledge and abilities and which challenge their ability to cope.” It is a state where employees feel frustrated and incapable of meeting the demands of their jobs. In many cases, the problem is worsened when the management and supervisors ignore or fail to understand and address the unique challenges that workers face. These employees feel that they have to struggle to barely meet the expectations that the firm has of them.
There is a strong and direct relationship between work stress and organizational citizenship behavior. Baykal (2020) explains that OCB is a state where employees feel that they have to make an extra effort to register a performance that is above the contractual agreement. That can only happen when they feel that their current capabilities exceed what they are expected of and that the organization has put in place measures and systems to enable them to perform better (Bartlett et al., 2019). On the other side of the spectrum, stress is associated with frustration, a feeling of being inadequate, and a lack of support from the management unit. When an employee is stressed, they will struggle to barely meet contractual expectations (Rajandran, 2019). Such an individual will not make any attempt to go beyond what is expected of them. They will feel that the current contractual expectations are so high that once they are met when it is possible, it is unrealistic to make any extra effort.
Causes of Organizational Stress
The level of stress that employees face varies from one organization to another. According to Foster (2019), when employees are faced with immense workplace stress, they tend to blame their employer. They will develop a feeling that their firm is only focused on making profits and enriching the shareholders at the expense of employees’ wellbeing. They will view the employer as an enemy that is keen on exploiting employees without any regard for their physical and mental wellness (Liu and Ma, 2021). Such a perception towards the employer creates resentment and a desire to fight back. Such workers would be keen on engaging in industrial action instead of making an extra effort in the workplace.
One of the leading causes of organizational stress is providing limited time for employees to complete specific tasks. A significant number of the respondents noted that their employers do not give them adequate time to complete specific tasks. Yates (2020) explains that when employees are not granted adequate time, they are forced to work under pressure. When they fail to meet the expected targets, they will be stressed, especially when they are reprimanded or denied benefits that others are granted. Working under pressure also increases the possibility of an employee committing an error in the process of undertaking a given task.
A section of the respondents noted that sometimes they undertake their normal duties without the assistance that they feel they need and deserve. According to Abbas et al. (2021), there are cases when workers need some form of assistance to complete specific tasks. The assistance may be needed to enable them to understand the new requirement, understand emerging technology, or when a task can be completed more effectively when it is done by two or more individuals. The management should understand when assistance is needed and then provide the same. Failure to do so causes dissatisfaction and stress among employees.
Unrealistic expectations by the management are another common cause of stress within an organization. Every individual has a limit in terms of what they can deliver, based on their skills and experience. When the management sets targets based on the capabilities of its best-performing employees, a significant number may fail to meet such goals (Zhu et al., 2020). Failure to meet these specific goals may have varying consequences. Besides the risk of being denied benefits available for the best performers, there is also the possibility that the level of confidence of the individual may be affected. They would feel less adequate and incapable of working under pressure (Bartlett et al., 2019). Such a negative perception that one develops towards oneself would further lower their level of performance.
The inability to manage diversity within an organization may be a major source of stress within an organization. The world is increasingly becoming a global village as people keep migrating from one place to another. In the United Arab Emirates, it has become common to find Europeans, Asians, Arabs, and Africans working together in a given organization (Geraghty, Speelman, and Bayes, 2019). These firms are highly diversified in terms of race, religion, gender, sexual orientation, and many other demographical factors. Diversity may be a cause for discrimination if a firm fails to manage it properly. Winston (2019) explains that some employees may be discriminated against primarily because of these demographical factors. Stress is often high in an environment where discriminative acts are common.
Impact of Organizational Stress on Employee Performance
Organizational stress may have a varying degree of impact on the performance of employees in the workplace. According to Foy et al. (2019), when employees are constantly stressed, the chances of mistakes may be significantly high. This is so because the high level of stress impairs the judgment of the worker, which then lowers their concentration. Instead of focusing on their tasks, such an individual may be thinking of things that are not related to their assignment. Such mistakes tend to increase the cost of production within an organization.
Stress reduces the overall output of an employee within an organization. Sendjaya (2019) explains that the level of performance of a worker is directly defined by their level of motivation. A highly motivated employee tends to be self-driven, focused, and committed to achieving specific goals. On the other hand, a demotivated worker will have to be closely supervised to complete their tasks. Such individuals tend to feel that their employer is exploiting them (Borikar and Bhatt, 2020). These individuals will not be committed to their work, and without proper supervision, will spend most of their working hours complaining and doing irrelevant things.
The quality of work that is delivered by a highly stressed individual is significantly low. In a production line, every employee is expected to pay attention and ensure that specific activities are done at the right time and in the right manner. It is critical to ensure that specific measurements or steps are followed strictly to achieve the desired level of quality in a given product. Haque and Oino (2019) believe that when workers are highly stressed, it is common for them to make mistakes that directly affect the quality of the product. In a market where customers have alternatives to choose from, the more the quality of a firm’s products drops, the more it would lose its customers.
Reduced creativity and innovativeness are other factors that are directly linked to stress among employees. Successful firms have learned the significance of having a team of highly creative and innovative employees. As new challenges emerge within an organization, workers with innovative ideas can develop ingenious solutions that can propel the performance of a firm to the highest level possible (Ashraf, Mangi, and Laghari, 2020). However, such levels of creativity can only be achieved when employees are motivated and self-driven. Stress limits the ability of employees to think creatively. They will only focus on completing their tasks based on standard practices.
The Relationship between Workplace Stress and Effective Employee Management
The discussion above shows a close relationship between workplace stress and the general performance of employees. It is necessary to understand that workplace stress also affects the effectiveness of employee management. According to Huang et al. (2022), when employees are stressed, they tend to pose serious challenges to management. When the level of stress is high among employees, the management will be forced to maintain close supervision because of the low morale. It is challenging to manage workers who have to be closely and constantly supervised. The work of the manager becomes strenuous as they have to be physically present for the employees to work as expected.
The management unit must be ready to address the problem of a possible rebellion among workers. When employees are stressed, Li et al. (2022) note that they often tend to blame those who are in positions of power within the firm. They believe that they are overworked and that their needs and welfare are ignored. Such individuals can easily rebel against the management at the slightest provocation. The rebellion will be a symbol of fighting for their interest that they feel ignored. The management should be ready to address a possible industrial action among employees.
Verbal and physical altercations tend to be significantly high among employees who are under immense levels of pressure and stress. Guo, Cheng, and Luo (2021) believe that when an individual is highly stressed, they always want to blame anyone that they feel remotely responsible for their pain. They tend to be highly irritable, and any minor provocation can lead to a serious fight. For a manager, the workplace becomes a dangerous environment when they have to deal with such individuals regularly. They have to know that they can be attacked by just doing their job of supervision. They also have to find ways of managing physical and verbal confrontations among employees. Meeting targets with such workers becomes nearly impossible.
The management is often faced with the possibility of having suicide cases among stressed employees. Foster (2019) explains that when a worker is stressed for a long period and the condition is not managed, they can easily develop depression. The problem is that some people rarely share their problems with friends or family. They will continue working as though they are coping well with the stressful environment. UPS is one of the companies that have witnessed cases of suicide among its workers, which is related to stress. It is reported that on January 3, 2022, a pregnant employee committed suicide at the firm’s premises in Louisville, Kentucky (Sainato, 2022). It is reported that employees at this facility are constantly subjected to intense quota pressures, an unsafe and unclean environment, understaffing, and injuries. The lady could no longer sustain the pain and suffering anymore, hence she took her own life. When such incidences occur, the outrage from the rest of the employees and members of the public is often directed to the management. It is also reported that on November 9, 2009, 50-year-old Mark Warren Samoline, who was a UPS vice president, committed suicide. It is a demonstration that the stress and pressure that employees of this firm experience are not limited to the lower cadre of employees. The managers too are also faced with the same problems and sometimes they face the risk of taking their own lives when they feel that they can no longer withstand the high levels of stress.
Types of Organizational Citizenship Behaviors
Every organization is keen on promoting organizational citizenship behavior. Verlinden (2022) defines OCB as “a term that’s used to describe all the positive and constructive employee actions and behaviors that aren’t part of their formal job description.” It is the actions and decisions that workers make out of their free will to support their colleagues and facilitate the overall growth of their organization. It involves going beyond what is defined in their contract to help a firm succeed. These actions are driven by a genuine desire of employees to see their firm achieve success (Zhou, Ma, and Dong, 2018). The following are the different types of OCB that are reviewed in this study.
Altruism
This happens when an employee helps a colleague in the workplace without expecting the same to be done to him or asking for anything in return. In such an environment, when an individual has completed their normal assignment but sees that a colleague is overwhelmed by their tasks, they will offer to help unconditionally (Lin, Scott, and Matta, 2019). Their goal is to relieve their colleague of the pressures at work and ensure that they complete their tasks. Altruism demonstrates a high level of employee morale, effectiveness, and productivity. They are aware that the overall success of the company directly depends on the success of every individual employee.
The primary data analyzed demonstrated that altruism is a desirable attribute that sometimes is missing among many employees. It is common to find workers leave an organization as soon as they complete their assignments. However, a few would consider helping their close friends complete their tasks so that they can go home together. The respondents noted that it may be difficult to determine if such assistance would be considered altruism or self-interest of an individual who wants to be accompanied home by the beneficiary of their kind actions.
Courtesy
The ability of an employee to be polite, kind, and considerate towards others, especially their fellow employees in the workplace, is part of OCB. In the workplace environment, there are numerous stressors, and sometimes one may be rude because of the pressure they have to handle. However, some workers choose to be kind and considerate when engaging their colleagues (Toh, Ng, and Phoon, 2022). They understand that when they are rude to a colleague, the colleague will do the same to another, and it becomes a vicious cycle that creates an unhealthy workplace environment.
The analysis of primary data indicated that courtesy is a common practice in the organization. People would greet each other in the morning and avoid using words that may create tension. However, a respondent explained that courtesy tends to be high when workers are not stressed. When working under pressure, people often forget to be courteous as they struggle to meet tight deadlines set by their supervisors.
Sportsmanship
It is common for events to turn out in ways that an employee did not expect. This type of OCB requires employees to be good losers when things fail to be as expected. Montani et al. (2018) report that some people tend to react negatively and angrily when they fail to achieve specific goals. This principle requires them to be good losers by accepting undesirable situations, assessing why events happened the way they did, and then defining ways of ensuring that it does not happen the same way in the future. The ability to stay positive in the face of such losses means that an individual can develop an alternative path toward success at a faster rate and in a more effective manner. It follows the advice of Hartwig (2020) who suggests that successful people should fail fast and recover from it quickly. They will get to learn from such experiences and become better at what they do.
Conscientiousness
This type of OCB involves a high level of discipline and self-control that is beyond the requirements put in place by the management. This is a high level of discipline where an employee constantly ensures that their actions do not in any way affect the well-being of their colleagues (Mao et al., 2021). Such individuals are willing to take on extra duties if that is what it takes to lessen the workload of their colleagues. Their level of tolerance is also significantly high because they know that their reactions have a serious impact on the organization. When a colleague is rude to such an individual, they will choose kindness instead. They feel satisfied and calm by being kind to rude colleagues than by expressing their rage. Although this virtue is rare, some employees exhibit it, and it helps in creating a peaceful workplace environment.
Civic Virtue
In this case, the focus is on how an employee represents their form when they are not in their official duties. Rajandran (2019) observes that it would be easy for one to identify a highly disciplined soldier from the crowd. The way they address an individual and their general mannerism would demonstrate that they are in the military. Similarly, employees are expected to demonstrate a positive image of their firm when they are not at work. They have to understand that their actions directly or indirectly portray their organization in a certain way (Lin, Scott, and Matta, 2019). There is also the case of what an employee says about their company when they are not on official duty. When such an individual gives a negative image of the firm even to one person, the information is likely to spread to a larger population. As such, an employee should take the responsibility of being a good ambassador of their firms.
The Impact of Organizational Stress and the Effects It Has On Organizational Citizenship Behavior and Co-Workers
Stress in the workplace is a common but highly undesirable problem that many organizations face. Haque and Oino (2019) believe that when employees are highly stressed, the concept of organizational citizenship behavior will be viewed with suspicion and resentment as well. Sharma (2020) explains that OCB requires commitment on the side of the employee. It is not something that the management can force on its workers. Instead, it should be a voluntary effort made by individuals who feel that their firm deserves better service. When employees already feel exploited and disregarded by the management, they would not see a sense of making an extra effort. They may feel that the current targets should be lowered. It is necessary to explain specific ways in which stress affects OCB based on the virtues discussed above.
Stress limits the ability of employees to practice altruism in the workplace. When an individual is highly stressed, probably from having to overwork, they will not have time to help others (Olson et al., 2019). They have their mental and physical constraints to manage and they are less likely to offer any form of assistance to others who may need it. When they complete their normal assignment, their only goal would be to go home and stay away from a stressful workplace environment.
Courtesy is critical in creating a conducive environment, but when levels of stress are high, it becomes irrelevant to many employees. Such individuals are constantly worried about meeting their targets that they do not remember to greet their employees or wish them luck when they are undertaking a new responsibility or facing a new challenge (Tabor et al., 2020). It creates an environment of individualism, where employees believe that they have to address their problems and encourage themselves to achieve their goals.
OCB encourages the need to embrace sportsmanship as a way of dealing positively with losses. However, Biggam (2021) explains that one can only remain positive when they lose only if they are offered a positive environment (Badu et al., 2020). When the environment is highly stressful, such a loss would be viewed by the management as a failure, and it may be accompanied by some consequences. It is not easy for an individual to remain positive when the environment around them is negative and highly toxic. It explains why some people would opt to take their lives as the only alternative to dealing with such a loss.
Discipline and self-control are other requirements that an employee should exhibit for them to be considered to have organizational citizenship behavior. The analysis of both primary and secondary data has shown that stress causes a toxic workplace environment. People tend to be highly irritable, and they can overreact to minor issues that should otherwise be ignored. Sharma (2020) warns that maintaining self-control and discipline in such an environment may be a challenge. When one is unfairly attacked by a stressed employee at a time when they are also dealing with stress, they can easily lose self-control and discipline. Their actions would be erratic and cause disunity among employees.
Civic virtue can only be expressed by employees who are satisfied with their company. Human beings are social and they will express their genuine feelings to people who are close to them. When they are working under stressful conditions, the only opportunity that they have to vent out their negative energy and be sincere about their feelings at work is when they are outside the firm. They will explain their pain and suffering to their friends and relatives who can offer them emotional support. Civic virtue would mean nothing to them because these are the only avenues of managing their stress.
Conclusions and Recommendations
Conclusion
Organizational citizenship behavior is highly desirable in the current competitive business environment. Data from both primary and secondary sources show that when competition is stiff in the market, the only way through which a firm can gain an edge over its rivals is to maintain a creative and innovative internal environment. Employees should be willing and committed to thinking of new ways of solving chronic and emerging challenges. OCB creates an environment where employees cherish creativity. These workers are willing to go beyond their normal assignments to ensure that their organization is successful. They know that the ability of their company to achieve success depends on their performance. As such, they will be willing to assist their colleagues whenever they feel it is necessary. OCB promotes a culture of courtesy, where individual employees understand that their actions directly affect their colleagues. They embrace tolerance, and self-discipline as a way of protecting peace and tranquility in the workplace.
Work stress has a direct negative impact on these positive virtues of OCB. It creates intolerance among employees who feel constantly under pressure to deliver. The study shows that in many cases, employees tend to blame their managers for creating an environment where they are constantly stressed. Their loyalty towards the firm would be lost, and in most cases, the only reason why they stay with the firm is that they lack an alternative. The focus of stressed employees would be to meet the bare minimum requirements. For a firm that seeks to promote OCB among its employees, eliminating stress in the workplace should be a priority.
Recommendations
Based upon findings from both primary and secondary data and in response to research questions and the aim of the study, the researcher proposes the following recommendations to help eliminate stress and promote OCB:
- The management of a firm should ensure that the skills and experience of employees are matched with their job assignments at all times to enhance their satisfaction.
- Employees should be taken through regular training to enhance their skills and capabilities to eliminate or reduce job-related stress.
- A firm should regularly investigate and address both job-related and personal life-related stresses among employees and find ways of eliminating them.
Limitations
When conducting the study, there were limitations, which are worth discussing at this stage of the research. One of the limitations was that the sample size was relatively small because of the few numbers of people who were available to take part in the study. This was blamed on a closed culture in the country where few people are willing to freely take part in such studies. This challenge was addressed by increasing the number of secondary data sources used to support findings. The researcher was also unable to collect data from employees of numerous organizations across the country to understand the prevalence of the problem. The few participants had to represent the entire population.
Areas of Future Research
There is a need for scholars to conduct further studies in this field of investigation. The main area that still needs further investigation is how a firm can promote organizational citizenship behavior in a highly stressful environment. In a highly competitive business environment, it may not be possible to eliminate all the stressors as the firm and its employees struggle to find effective ways of managing competition. As such, it becomes necessary for a firm to find ways of promoting OCB despite the existence of work-related stress. This is a field that future scholars need to investigate to address the existing knowledge gap.
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